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Table 3 Characterization techniques and limitations

From: Green Adeptness in the Synthesis and Stabilization of Copper Nanoparticles: Catalytic, Antibacterial, Cytotoxicity, and Antioxidant Activities

Technique

Main role

Limitations

Sensitivity

Ref.

Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-vis)

Concentration and shape of NPs can be measured

Only for liquid samples

UV-visible regions 200–800 nm

[22]

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

Nature of bonds and functional groups can be determined

Structure and size of NPs cannot be measured

20 Å–1 μm

[22]

X-ray diffraction (XRD)

Size and crystallinity of nanoparticles can be measured

Composition of NPs and plasmon cannot be found

1 nm

[36]

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

Shape and size of nanostructures can be determined

Samples must be solid and cannot detect elements with atomic number < 11

< 1 nm

[115]

Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM)

All structural and morphological investigations are carried out by this technique

Does not give a concentration of NPs

< 1 nm

[117]

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)

Shape and size of nanostructures can be determined

Particles with size < 1.5 nm cannot be determined

< 1.5 nm

[92]

Particle size analysis (PSA)

Measured the distribution of size in the sample of solid or liquid particulate materials

1 nm–1 μm

[57, 58]

Malvern Zetasizer (MZS)

Measured the size of NPs, zeta potential, and protein mobility

In nanorange

[58]

Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX/EDS)

Composition of NPs can be analyzed

Particles with size < 2 nm cannot be analyzed

< 2 nm

[59, 60]

Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA)

Visualize and measure particle size, concentration, and fluorescent properties of a nanoparticle

30–10 nm

[62]

Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS)

Size and shape conformation

Lower resolution range

50–10 Å

[116]

X-ray reflectometry (XRR)

Determination of thickness, density, and roughness

Layer thickness 0.1–1000 nm

[116]

X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF)

Chemical composition and concentration can be measured

Limited in their ability to measure precisely and accurately

[76]

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)

Elemental composition of nanoparticles can be analyzed

Decomposition of samples occurred

3–92 nm

[78]

Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis (BET)

Specific surface area is measured

 

0.35–2 nm

[76]

Selected area electron diffraction (SAED)

Technique that can be performed inside a TEM

Cannot be recommended for quantitative identification techniques

[76]

Atomic force microscopy (AFM)

Particle size and characterization

For gas and liquid samples

1 nm–8 μm

[88]

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