Table 1 Results of estimation of nanoparticle toxicity in experimental models of their oral uptake
From: Dependence of Nanoparticle Toxicity on Their Physical and Chemical Properties
Type of nanoparticles | Sizes | Concentration; incubation time | Cell line | Method of detection | Effects; conclusions | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ag, TiO2, and ZnO NPs | Ag, 20–30 nm TiO2, 21 nm ZnO, 20 nm | 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 mg/ml; 24 and 48 h | Caco-2 SW480 | МТТ assay; ELISA; LDH assay; ROS assay | Cell death (ZnO NPs are more toxic). ROS production. Release of IL-8 (Caco-2 cells produce more IL-8 than SW480 cells). | [136] |
Latex NPs and microbeads | 50 nm and 100 nm | 10–1000 μg/ml; 4 h | Caco-2 Calu-3 | MTS assay; LDH assay; transepithelial electrical resistance measurement; confocal microscopy | Cell death (positively charged NPs are more toxic). Release of LDH from cells. Penetration of the NPs into cells. Transport of the NPs through the epithelium layer (16–24% of the microbeads and < 5% of the NPs entering a cell monolayer are transported through it). | [137] |
Spherical (SNPs) and rod-shaped (RNPs) CuO NPs | SNPs: diameter, 40 ± 16 nm RNPs: thickness, 10 ± 3 nm; length, 74 ± 17 nm | 5–100 mg/ml; 24, 48, and 120 h | Caco-2 A549 SZ95 N-hTERT | MTS assay; PCR; immunoblotting; ELISA | Decreased cell viability (RNPs are more toxic). Expression of genes encoding proinflammatory cytokines. The transcript profile varies depending on the type of NPs: CD3E in the case of RNPs; IL-1a, IL-9, and CD86 in the case of SNPs. | [138] |
CdTe QDs | 3.5–4.5 nm | 1, 0.1, and 0.01 mg/l; 24 h | Caco-2 | Fluorescent microscopy; transepithelial electrical resistance measurement | Cell death related to penetration of QDs into them. Decreased TEER at a QD concentration of 0.1 mg/l. | [139] |
MgO, ZnO, SiO2, TiO2, and carbon black NPs | MgO, 8 nm ZnO, 10–20 nm SiO2, 14 nm TiO2, ˂10–300 nm Carbon black, 14 nm | 20 and 80 mg/cm2; 24 h | Caco-2 | WST-1; LDH assay; DNA comet assay; glutathione level measurement | Decreased cell viability. Release of LDH from cells. Double-strand DNA breaks and oxidative damage of DNA. Decreased glutathione level. | [140] |
Ag nanorods | Length-to-diameter ratio, 4:1 | 0.4 nM; 4 days | HT29 | МТТ assay; cell count | Cytotoxicity is related to surfactants on the nanorod surface. | [141] |
CdSe QDs | 1.4–2.5 nm | 2–200 pM; 24 h | Caco-2 | МТТ assay; test for cell culture adhesion | Cytotoxicity is observed at a concentration of 200 pM because of the release of Cd from QD cores. | [142] |
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes modified with COOH groups | 1.4 ± 0.1 nm | 5–1000 μg/ml; 24 h | Caco-2 | MTS assay; LDH assay; staining with neutral assay; staining with trypan blue | Cell death at a nanotube concentration higher than 100 μg/ml. | [143] |
Polystyrene NPs modified with COOH and NH2 groups | 20–40 nm | 0.3–12 nm;16 h | Caco-2 | Transepithelial electrical resistance measurement confocal microscopy; caspase 3 assay; fluorescent microscopy | The NPs modified with COOH are more readily absorbed by cells. Decreased cell viability (the negatively charged COOH-modified NPs are more toxic). | [144] |
VO nanotubes | Diameter, 15–100 nm | 0.1–0.5 mg/ml; 4–24 h | Caco-2 | Neutral red assay | Cell death caused by the nanotubes. | [145] |
Polystyrene NPs modified and not modified with carboxylic acids | 20 and 40 nm | 0.3–6.6 nM; 4–16 h | Caco-2 | L/D cell assay; clustering analysis; apoptosis assay | Decreased cell viability. Carboxylic acid-functionalized NPs decrease the cell viability more quickly and strongly. | [144] |