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Table 3 Results of estimation of nanoparticle toxicity in experimental models of their inhalation uptake

From: Dependence of Nanoparticle Toxicity on Their Physical and Chemical Properties

Type of nanoparticles

Sizes

Concentration; incubation time

Cell line

Method of detection

Effects; conclusions

Reference

ZnO NPs

288.2 ± 2.4 and 265.7 ± 3.6 nm

4, 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, 500, and 1000 μg/ml; 6 and 24 h

С10

МТS assay; fluorescent microscopy; ROS assay

Decrease in cell viability after 6 and 24 h of incubation.

Oxidative stress because of leakage of Zn ions.

[155]

Cu, CuO, ZnO, TiO2, Ti, Ag, Co, Ni, NiO, ZrO2, ZrO2+Y2O3, steel, Al2О3, SnO, WC, and CeO2 NPs

< 500 nm

1–10,000 μg/ml; 24 h

A549

THP-1

MTT assay; neutral red assay

The Cu and Zn NPs are the most toxic.

The Al, Ti, Ce, and Zr NPs are low-toxic.

The WC NPs are nontoxic.

Toxicity in the NPs is not related to their shape, diameter, or surface area.

[156]

CuO NPs

50 nm

1–40 μg/ml; 24 h

A549

SAEC

WST-8; SEM; flow cytometry; confocal microscopy; immunoblotting; DNA microarray analysis; real-time PCR

The NPs are highly toxic for both cell lines.

The NPs strongly affect the cell cycle, inhibiting the genes responsible for proliferation.

The NPs cause apoptosis of A549 and SAEC cells.

[157]

Carbon nanotubes

14, 25.7 ± 1.6, 14.84 ± 0.05, 10.40 ± 0.32, 84.89 ± 1.9, and 165.02 ± 4.68 nm

5–50 μg/cm2; 24 h

THP-1

Met5a

ELISA; trypan blue тест; ROS assay; flow cytometry

Decreased cell viability and induction of ROS production.

Intense release of acute phase inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα, and IL-6) and chemokines (IL-8) from THP-1 cells.

[158]

CdSe QDs modified with mercaptoundecanoic acid (MUA), mercaptopropionic acid (MPA), aminoundecanoic acid (AUA), or cysteamine (CA)

3, 5, and 10 nm

0.5, 5, 20, 80, and 160 μg/ml; 22 h

NHBE

WST-1; LDH assay; ELISA; fluorescent microscopy

The positively charged (AUA- and CA-modified) QDs are more toxic than the negatively charged (MUA- and MPA-modified) QDs.

The negatively charged QDs enhance the expression of proinflammatory cytokine genes; the positively charged QDs induce changes in the genes involved in mitochondrion functions.

[159]

SiO2 and Fe3O4 NPs modified and not modified with sodium oleate; TiO2 and PLGA NPs modified with polyethylene oxide (PLGA-PEO)

PLGA-PEO, 140 nm; SiO2, 25 and 50 nm; TiO2, 21 nm;

Fe3O4, 8 nm

0.6–75 μg/cm2; 24 and 48 h

16-HBE

A549

WST-1; flow cytometry; real-time PCR

The PLGA and TiO2 NPs have no considerable effect on 16-HBE or A549 cell viability.

The modified Fe3O4 NPs are more toxic than unmodified ones.

The PLGA NPs induce ROS generation without affecting cell metabolism, viability, or cytokine production rate.

[160]

CdSe/ZnS QDs modified with COOH or NH2 groups (COOH-QDs and NH2-QDs, respectively)

4–10 nm

2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, and 20 nM; 1–3 cell cycles

BEAS-2B

HFF-1

TK6

Flow cytometry; transmission electron microscopy (TEM); ELISA; ROS assay; calculation of cell population doubling time; fluorescent microscopy

The rate of QD uptake is considerably higher in BEAS-2B and TK6 cells.

The COOH-QDs are more readily absorbed by cells.

TK6 and HFF-1 cells are more sensitive to the QDs (a high toxicity is observed at concentrations higher than 15 nM) than BEAS-2B cells (a high toxicity is observed at concentrations higher than 20 nM). Minor changes in the ROS level are observed only in HFF-1 cells in the presence of the COOH-QDs and in TK6 cells in the presence of the NH2-QDs.

[161]

InP/ZnS and CdSe/ZnS QDs

InP/ZnS, 11.3 ± 0.6 nm; CdSe/ZnS, 13.4 ± 0.7 nm

1, 10, and 100 pM and 1 and 5 nM; 24 and 48 h

A549

SHSY5Y

WST-8; LDH assay; glutathione level measurement; analysis of mRNA expression level; TUNEL test

The CdSe/ZnS QDs damage the cell membrane, enhance the expression of detoxification enzyme genes, increase the antioxidant level, cause DNA damage, and disturb Ca2+ homeostasis in cells.

The InP/ZnS QDs are less toxic.

[162]

CeO2 NPs

15, 25, 30, and 45 nm

5, 10, 20, and 40 g/ml

BEAS-2B

MTT assay; glutathione level measurement; MTT assay; ROS assay; caspase 3 assay; fluorescent microscopy

Cell death mediated by ROS generation. The NPs are absorbed by cells and localized in the perinuclear space.

[55]

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