Table 2 The scaffolds made of graphene family materials and other synthetic or bio-polymers
From: Graphene Family Materials in Bone Tissue Regeneration: Perspectives and Challenges
Graphene family materials | Synthetic or bio-polymers | Fabrication methods | The improvement of physical or mechanical properties | Key results of experiments in vitro | Key results of experiments in vivo | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
GO | PCL | Electrospinning process | Highly porous nature; an increase in tensile strength, elongation and Young’s modulus | Better biological characteristics with high cell viability | [80] | |
rGO | Macro–mesoporous bioactive glass (MBG); osteoblast-specific aptamer (AP) | Sol–gel method | Macroporous structure with fully interconnected open pores; excellent mechanical properties with a Young’s modulus of ~ 80 kPa | Accelerated the osteogenic differentiation of rat osteoblasts by up-regulating the mRNA expression level of four osteoblast markers sinificantly. | In the large bone defects of the rat femurs, the new bone appeared both peripherally and centrally in rGO-MBG-AP scaffold. | [160] |
rGO | Polypyrrole (PPY); casein phosphopeptide (CPP) | Electrostatic self-assembly method | Excellent hydrophilic property and water uptake performance | Promoted the rapid formation of hydroxyapatite in the biomimetic mineralization; enhanced the adhesion, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells. | [161] | |
rGO | PPY; HA | Electrostatic layer-bylayer assembly strategy; biomimetic mineralization | Better mechanical property with desired configuration, high specific surface area and large surface roughness. | Enhanced MC3T3-E1 cells adhesion and proliferation. | [162] | |
GO | Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) | Electrospinning technique | Reduced the fiber diameter and enhanced porosity, hydrophilicity and mechanical properties of the scaffolds. | Improved cellular performance, and osteogenic differentiation in vitro. | Promoted osteogenesis and rapidly increased bone volume even at an early stage. | [163] |
GO | Cellulose acetate (CA); nanofibrous | Electrospinning technique | Increased the Young’s modulus of the nanofibers in a GO dose-dependent manner | Facilitated adhesion and proliferation of BMSCs on the scaffolds; accelerated biomineralization; induced osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs | [164] | |
Graphene oxide carboxymethylation (cGO) | HA; silk fibroin (SF) | Biomimetic mineralization and simply mix | Higher compressive strength and compressive modulus, respectively | Stimulated BMSCs adhesion and proliferation, ALP secretion and mineral deposition more strongly | [165] | |
rGO | Zinc silicate (ZS); calcium silicate | Two-step spin-coating method | Increased annealing temperature | Suppressed the receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB-ligand-induced osteoclastic differentiation of mouse leukemic monocyte macrophages | [166] | |
rGO | PDMS | Dipped and dried | Good mechanical strength and with pore sizes ranging from 10 to 600 um | Accelerated growth and differentiation of human adipose stem cells to an osteogenic cell lineage | [167] | |
GO | Nano-HA; collagen; PLGA | Freeze-drying method | Improved the hydrophilicity and reinforced their mechanical strength; increased Young’s modulus (10.20 ± 1.28 GPa) | Enhanced cell adhesion and proliferation of MC3T3-E1 | [168] | |
GO | Gelatin hydroxyapatite matrix | Freeze-drying method | Less brittleness | Induced osteogenic differentiation of human adipose derived mesenchymal stem cells without chemical inducer | [169] | |
Pristine graphene | PCL | 3D printing | Increased hydrophilicity of the surface | Enhanced cell viability and proliferation | [170] | |
GO multi-walled carbon nanotube oxides (MWCNTO) | Poly (d, l-lactic acid) (PDLLA) | MWCNTO-GO was prepared via oxygen plasma etching (OPE) | High mechanical performance (~ 600 MPa) | Allowed for MG-63 cells interactions and the formation of mineralized matrix significantly facilitated osteoblast ALP activity | Superior influence on bone cell activity, promoting greater new bone formation | [171] |