Table 1 Research on active anode material, theoretical capacity, advantages
| Active anode material | Theoretical capacity (mAh g−1) | Advantages | Common issues | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Insertion/de-insertion materials A. Carbonaceous a. Hard carbons b. CNTS c. Graphene |
200–600 1116 780/1116 |
Good working potential Low cost Good safety |
Low coulombic efficiency High voltage hysteresis High irreversible capacity | [3, 22,23,24,25,26,27,28] |
|
Insertion/de-insertion materials B. Titanium oxides a. LiTi4O5 b. TiO2 |
175 330 |
Extreme safety Good cycle life Low cost High power capability |
Very low capacity Low energy density | [29] |
|
Alloy/de-alloy materials a. Silicon b. Germanium c. Tin d. Antimony e. Tin oxide f. SiO |
4212 1624 993 660 790 1600 |
Higher specific capacities High energy density Good safety |
Large irreversible capacity Huge capacity fading Poor cycling | [25, 26, 30,31,32,33,34] |
|
Conversion materials a. Metal oxides (Fe2O3, Fe3O4, CoO, Co3O4, MnxOy, Cu2O/CuO, NiO, Cr2O3, RuO2, MoO2/MoO3 etc.) | 500–1200 |
High capacity High energy Low cost Environmentally compatibility High specific capacity Low operation potential and Low polarization than counter oxides |
Low coulumbic efficiency Unstable SEI formation Large potential hysteresis Poor cycle life Poor capacity retention Short cycle life High cost of production | [32, 33, 35,36,37,38] |
|
Conversion materials b. Metal phoshides/sulfides/nitrides (MXy; M ¼ Fe, Mn, Ni, Cu, Co etc. and X ¼ P, S, N) | 500–1800 |
High capacity High energy Low cost Environmentally compatibility High specific capacity Low operation potential and Low polarization than counter oxides |
Low coulumbic efficiency Unstable SEI formation Large potential hysteresis Poor cycle life Poor capacity retention Short cycle life High cost of production | [33, 37, 38] |