Table 1 Research on active anode material, theoretical capacity, advantages
Active anode material | Theoretical capacity (mAh g−1) | Advantages | Common issues | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Insertion/de-insertion materials A. Carbonaceous a. Hard carbons b. CNTS c. Graphene | 200–600 1116 780/1116 | Good working potential Low cost Good safety | Low coulombic efficiency High voltage hysteresis High irreversible capacity | |
Insertion/de-insertion materials B. Titanium oxides a. LiTi4O5 b. TiO2 | 175 330 | Extreme safety Good cycle life Low cost High power capability | Very low capacity Low energy density | [29] |
Alloy/de-alloy materials a. Silicon b. Germanium c. Tin d. Antimony e. Tin oxide f. SiO | 4212 1624 993 660 790 1600 | Higher specific capacities High energy density Good safety | Large irreversible capacity Huge capacity fading Poor cycling | |
Conversion materials a. Metal oxides (Fe2O3, Fe3O4, CoO, Co3O4, MnxOy, Cu2O/CuO, NiO, Cr2O3, RuO2, MoO2/MoO3 etc.) | 500–1200 | High capacity High energy Low cost Environmentally compatibility High specific capacity Low operation potential and Low polarization than counter oxides | Low coulumbic efficiency Unstable SEI formation Large potential hysteresis Poor cycle life Poor capacity retention Short cycle life High cost of production | |
Conversion materials b. Metal phoshides/sulfides/nitrides (MXy; M ¼ Fe, Mn, Ni, Cu, Co etc. and X ¼ P, S, N) | 500–1800 | High capacity High energy Low cost Environmentally compatibility High specific capacity Low operation potential and Low polarization than counter oxides | Low coulumbic efficiency Unstable SEI formation Large potential hysteresis Poor cycle life Poor capacity retention Short cycle life High cost of production |