Table 2 Flexible temperature sensors application and key parameters
Materials | Fabrication methods | Performance | Application | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sensitivity | Measurement range (°C) | Response time | Accuracy/resolution (°C) | Linearity | Repeatabilityand durability | |||
Gr/PDMS [67] | Dispensing technology | \(0.286 \,{\text{K}}^{ - 1}\) | 30–110 | – | - | Yes | – | Robotic applications |
Gr/PEO/PVDF [68] | Coating techniques | – | 25–42 | 26 s | 0.1 | – | 2000 cycles 1 month | Medical diagnosis; temperature monitoring |
MWCNT/BY-2 cells [76] | Plant nanobionics | \(- \,1730\% \,{\text{K}}^{ - 1}\) | 35–75 | – | – | – | – | Thermal and distance sensors |
Graphene/PDMS [58] | Lithographic filtration methods | \(- \,1.05\% \,{\text{K}}^{ - 1}\) | 30–100 | – | – | Yes | 100 cycles | Wearable temperature sensing applications |
rGO/PET [87] | Printing technology | \(0.635\% \,^{ \circ } {\text{C}}^{ - 1}\) | 30–100 | 1.2 s | – | Yes | 3 cycles | Robot skins; IoT |
rGO/Cellulose [54] | Cast technology | – | 25–80 | – | – | Yes | – | Wearable devices |
rGO/PU [17] | Coating techniques | \(1.34\% \,^{ \circ } {\text{C}}^{ - 1}\) | 30–80 | – | 0.2 | Yes | 10,000 cycles | Wearable skin electronics |
GNWs/PDMS [86] | PECVD & Polymer assisted transfer methods | \(0.214\,^{ \circ } {\text{C}}^{ - 1}\) | 25–120 | 1.6 s | 0.1 | Yes | 10 cycles 2 months | Human health monitor |
Pt/PI [6] | MEMS technology | \(0.32\% \,^{ \circ } {\text{C}}^{ - 1}\) | 20–120 | – | – | Yes | 3 cycles | Biomedical applications |
Au/Cr/PVA [99] | Microlithography | \(2.5\% \,^{ \circ } {\text{C}}^{ - 1}\) | 25–45 | 3.7 ms | 0.008 | Yes | 100 cycles | Stretchable electronics |
Ag/PI [102] | Printing technology | \(0.223\% \,^{ \circ } {\text{C}}^{ - 1}\) | 20–60 | – | – | Yes | 40 days | Printed medical applications |
Ni/PE/PEO [95] | Liqid phase mixing | \(0.3\,{\text{V}}\,^{ \circ } {\text{C}}^{ - 1}\) | 35–42 | – | 2.7 | – | 100 cycles | Medical diagnostics |
OA/BA/Graphite/PI [116] | Printing technology | 20 mK | 25–50 | < 100 ms | 0.1 | – | 100 cycles | Health diagnostics; wearable devices |
TE-nanowires/P3HT [107] | Drop casting | 0.15 K | – | 17 s | 0.4 | Yes | – | TENG |
pNIPAM/PEDOT:PSS/CNTs/PDMS [108] | Coating techniques & Lithography | \(2.6\% \,^{ \circ } {\text{C}}^{ - 1}\) | 25–40 | 139 s | 0.5 | Yes | 500 cycles 12 h | Disease diagnosis; e-skin |
rGO/P(VDF-TrFE) [113] | Coating techniques | – | 30–80 | – | 0.1 | Yes | 1000 cycles | Electronic skin; human–machine interface |
PEDOT:PSS/ PU [23] | Dipping method | 0.1 K | 25–75 | < 2 s | 0.1 | Yes | 10,000 cycles | Robotics and health-monitoring products |
CaCl2/pectin [178] | Liqid phase mixing | 10 mK | 8–39 | – | – | Yes | – | Biomedical applications |
VO2/PDMS [103] | Printing technology | \(- \,1.12\% \,{\text{K}}^{ - 1}\) | 3.15–46.85 | < 2 s | 0.1 | Yes | 10,000 cycles | Wearable AI elements |
MWCNT/PVDF yarn [111] | Dip-coating techniques | \(0.13\% \,{\text{K}}^{ - 1}\) | 30–45 | – | – | Yes | 200,000 cycles | Smart textiles |
GNRs/paper [171] | Pen-on-paper | \(1.27\% \,{\text{K}}^{ - 1}\) | 30–80 | 0.5 | 0.2 | Yes | 5000 cycles | Disposable sensors |
PEDOT:PSS/ paper [177] | Dip-coating techniques | \(658.5\, \Omega \,^{ \circ } {\text{C}}^{ - 1}\) | 30–42 | – | – | Yes | – | Medical diagnostics |
PEDOT:PSS/CNTs/PET [170] | Printing technology | \(0.85\% \,^{ \circ } {\text{C}}^{ - 1}\) | 30–55 | < 50 ms | – | Yes | 92 days | Health monitoring |