Table 4 Adverse effect of nanoparticles on targeted crop and soil health

Al₂O₃

50

Nicotiana tabacum L.

Reduce the germination percentage, biomass per seedling, and average root length

3

Reduce the activity of bacteria Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas stutzeri

[147, 148]

C_60-fullerence

50

G. max (L.) Merr

Reduced biomass

60

Reduction of 20–30% in fast-growing protozoa and bacteria

[58, 149]

CuO, Ni, ZnO and Cr₂O₃

100

Oryza sativa L.

Effect the activities of antioxidant enzymes in plant

24

Activity of enzyme dehydrogenase and urease reduced to 75% and 44% respectively

[221, 222]

ZnO and TiO₂

10- 20

T. aestivum L.

Reduced the root growth by 75%

60

Adversely affect the growth of earthworms, traces of ZnO and TiO₂ were found inside the body

[61, 223]

Zn²⁺, Zn, and ZnO

50

Z. mays L.

50% reduction in photosynthesis, leaf stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, and intercellular CO₂ concentration

56

Reduce enzymes like β-glucosidase, phosphatase, and dehydrogenase present in the soil

[51, 150]

nZVI (zero valent iron)

20–100

Salix alba L.

Effect seedling growth

7

At 750 mg/kg, mortality rate of Lumbricus rubellus and Eisenia fetida was 100%

[53, 224]

Au

25

O. sativa L.

Damage to the root cell wall due to accumulation of Au across xylem

30

Effect the soil microbes and edaphic factors of soil

[52, 225]

TiO₂, Ag, and CeO₂

7–45

A. cepa L.

Increase in DNA damage as well as lipid peroxidation in roots

14

Reduced the survival, growth and fertility of nematodes

[226]

SnO₂, CeO₂ and Fe₃O₄

61 (SnO₂), 50–100 (CeO₂), 20–30 (Fe₃O₄)

Z. mays L.

Fe₃O₄ results in accumulation of Al in plant roots and negatively affects plant growth

63

Inhibits microbial growth

[141]

Ag

10–20

P. vulgaris L.

Disrupt chlorophyll synthesis, nutrient uptake, and hormone regulation

30

50% reduction in the activity of nitrifying bacteria

[158]