Advances and Challenges of Fluorescent Nanomaterials for Synthesis and Biomedical Applications

Table 1 Chemical synthetic methods and properties of carbon dots

Methods	Doped elements	Size	PL color	QY (%)	Ref
Electrochemical synthesis	-	1.5–4 nm	Blue/yellow	1.2 (blue CNCs)	[22]
Electrochemical synthesis	-	3–5 nm	Green	-	[23]
Combustion/acidic oxidation	-	< 2 nm	Violet/red/yellow	< 2	[24]
Combustion/acidic oxidation	-	3–4 nm	Yellow	~ 3–6	[25]
Microwave/ultrasonic treatment	-	3–5 nm	Blue	5.18	[33]
Microwave/ultrasonic treatment	N, S	2.92 nm-4.48 nm		57	[38]
Microwave/ultrasonic treatment	-	1.65 nm	-	7–11	[28]
Microwave/ultrasonic treatment	N, S	8 nm	Blue	22	[36]
Hydrothermal carbonization	O, N, P	1–6 nm	Bright and color-tunable	14.5	[40]
Hydrothermal carbonization	-	4–7 nm	Blue	7.8	[26]
Hydrothermal carbonization	N	2.70 nm	Blue	23.48	[42]
Microwave-hydrothermal carbonization	N, O	-	Blue	45.9	[43]
Solution chemistry methods	-	Tunable	-	-	[30]
Supported synthesis	-	1.5–2.5 nm	Blue	23	[31]
Solution chemistry methods	-	7.2 nm	Yellow	24	[41]